指代词语的主要话语(语篇)功能是识别指称对象,但是它们同时也提供了与指称对象有关的语篇信息或作者/说话者对指称对象所持的态度。以往的研究主要集中在不同指称形式的选择以及处理途径和过程上,揭示语篇中指示形式的实质和特点,丰富了人们对其话语功能的认识。本文则尝试在语篇互动视角下,分析语篇/话语中交际双方如何通过这些指示词语进行交流,其探讨有助于推动对指示词语交际及人际功能的进一步研究。 Despite the fact that the main function of referential expressions or references is to identify the referents in discourse, they at the same time provide information about the referred entity or reveal the attitude that the writer/speaker holds toward the specific referent. The previous research mainly focuses on the choice of the forms of reference used to refer to objects and events in discourse, and the processing of different referential forms. Based on the relevant research, this paper aims to explain how these different referential expressions reflect the interaction or dialogue between the writer/speaker and the reader/listener, and we believe such analysis or exploration can contribute to the study on the communicative function and strategy of referential expressions or references in discourse.
黑玉琴1,黑玉芬2
1西安外国语大学,陕西 西安
2西安交通大学,陕西 西安
收稿日期:2019年8月1日;录用日期:2019年8月16日;发布日期:2019年8月23日
指代词语的主要话语(语篇)功能是识别指称对象,但是它们同时也提供了与指称对象有关的语篇信息或作者/说话者对指称对象所持的态度。以往的研究主要集中在不同指称形式的选择以及处理途径和过程上,揭示语篇中指示形式的实质和特点,丰富了人们对其话语功能的认识。本文则尝试在语篇互动视角下,分析语篇/话语中交际双方如何通过这些指示词语进行交流,其探讨有助于推动对指示词语交际及人际功能的进一步研究。
关键词 :语篇/话语,指代形式,互动交际功能
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真实语言的使用涉及语篇,在语篇中句子与句子、话语与话语之间借助对特定对象的反复指代而有机地联系起来,构成连贯的语篇。这些指代(或指称)的表达可呈现出不同的形式,如专有名词(John,Jack)、限定性名词短语(the student,the waiter)、非限定性名词短语(a writer)、指示代词(this,that)以及代词(he,she)等。一般认为,在句子层次上,指代形式的选择受句法的制约(Chomsky [
在以往研究的基础上,本文以语篇互动视角为出发点,尝试解释这些指称形式的人际功能,因为任何语言成分和结构都可以被赋予认知或交际功能(Schiffrin [
在语篇分析中,指代词语属于语篇衔接系统。Halliday & Hasan [
Halliday & Hasan [
1) 人称照应:人称代词,如I/we,he/she/they,it,the X名词短语等;
2) 指示照应:指示代词和指示副词,如this/that,here/now,these/those等;
3) 比较照应:比较级及含比较意义的词语,如better,fewer,similar,different等;
4) 分句照应:指示代词和指示副词及短语等,如this,here,the above,the former等。
此外,其它一些词语,如专有名词及称谓语等也具有指代功能。指代词语的语法或句法功能与其在语篇中的衔接功能有明显不同之处,如人称代词的主格和宾格受严格的句法规则制约,在句中的语法作用完全不同,但是二者在语篇中起到同样的衔接作用,都可用于指某一具体语篇参与者(Halliday & Hasan [
在以往语篇或话语分析研究中,就指代词语的信息指示和语篇衔接功能而言,中外学者已有较多研究。但是,就微观层面上借助词语选择所展开的语篇内互动研究还为数不多,冉永平 [
Hoey对语篇互动性进行了深入、细致的研究(转引自罗选民,黄勤 [
由此可知,指代词语在语篇中具有互动作用,但是,它们在语篇中如何达到交际目的,其体现方式有何不同。对这些问题的研究有助于我们更全面地认识指代词语,因此,有必要从具体指代词语入手深入探讨语篇互动性的特点及方式。本文对这些词语采用语篇分析方法,将文本(text)视为话语过程,将文本语言视为说话人和接收人在共谋沟通和交流中使用的语言,其语句本身仅提供寻求意义的线索,只有借助文本语言、研究者自己的语言知识与背景知识所创造的语境,才能达到理解(吴 [
指代或指示词语作为一种语言表达手段或信号,在话语交际中能反映语篇作者的视点,“比如说话人从自己的角度出发,或从对方的角度出发,进行词汇选择及话语构建”(冉 [
指示词语的使用体现出语篇作者对读者信息理解需求的关注。在语篇或话语中,当语句内容较复杂、句子结构较长时,往往可以通过指代词语突出前句中的主要内容,提醒读者注意其要点,从而满足读者的需求,因此,指示词语的使用反映出语篇作者与读者之间的一种互动,如以下几例所示:
(1) Some models of state socialization stress the importance of interstate rivalry as the key mechanism of international homogenization, such a model of “competitive socialization” could be said to correspond to a realist perspective in the study of international relations. This is by no means new. (Charles [
(2) It should also be noted here that the use of an unattributed noun in overtly critical examples such as (22) and (25) enables the writer to attack the work of other scholars, while at the same time mitigating somewhat the face-threatening impact of the criticism. This is probably a sensible stance for a writer who is still a candidate member of the field. (Hyland [
(3) We have been established by an Act of Parliament as an independent body to eliminate discrimination against disabled people and to secure equal opportunity for disabled people. To achieve this, we have set ourselves the goal of: “A society where all disabled people can participate fully as equal citizens”. (Cutting [
以上几例中,this都放在句子主位位置,指代前句的命题内容,并维持当前话语的注意焦点,便于读者沿着同样的思路继续阅读。借助这一归纳性指示代词,语篇作者还可以对之前的内容进行评价,如(1)中的by no means new,(2)中的probably a sensible stance,或表达自己的态度、判断、建议等,如(3)中“we have set ourselves the goal of …”。McCarthy ( [
另外,在连续话语中,指示词的使用反映出语篇作者对当前话语中注意焦点或中心(focus of attention)的认识和看法,并在指代时,可以有策略地选择如何将前后话语相联系以达到与读者进行互动交流的目的。Linde就英语中人们如何描述公寓进行调查(转引自McCarthy [
(4) And the living room was a very small room with two windows that wouldn’t open and things like that. And it looked nice. It had a beautiful brick wall.
(5) You entered into a tiny little hallway and the kitchen was off that. (McCarthy [
(4)中的句子都是在起居室这一注意焦点内,而(5)中的句子却从一个焦点(门厅)跨越到另一个焦点(厨房)。指示词的选择体现出说话者对话语焦点的认识或看法,如通过某种信号,提醒接受者关注焦点的变化,及时进行调整,以达到对话语的理解。
由此可知,话语中指示词语的使用并非随意的,有时代词(如this,that,it)看似具有相同的指代功能,很难从语法及语义角度对它们的使用做出合理的解释,这时就必须结合交际情景以及使用者的意图和视角。
言语交际被认为是一种互动合作活动,参与者使用语言手段达到共同目标,即成功的语言交流。指示词语作为这样的语言手段,提供了说话者与受话者、语篇作者与读者之间的一个额外交际渠道(Ariel [
(6) The saw-scaled viper is found in dry sandy areas where there is little vegetation. Its length is about two feet, and it is sandy in colour with darker spots. It is aggressive and very poisonous. It may be found in the full blaze of the sun or beneath hot stones and in crannies heated by the sun. (Bloor & Bloor [
而当作者转换话题时,则会选择完全指代的形式,读者由此可以和语篇作者的交流保持一致,不断调整话语的主题或出发点。例如:
(7) The only other considerable region of dense population in the world lies in Japan. This country shows a remarkable fusion of both densely populated rural and urban communities. (Bloor & Bloor [
在例(7)中,“Japan”处在述位,不是话语的出发点。通过“This country”这一指代形式,语篇作者使Japan成为话语中心并得到突显,明确传达出一定的交际意图,引导读者认识到这一目的,从而实现语篇参与者之间的交际。
这些不同形式的选择说明,“交际不是一种简单的言语行为,也即制约词语、话语及策略等选择的因素不只是句法管约,也不仅是语义组合的需要”(冉 [
指代形式可以被看成是交际双方互动的产物,说话人选择他们认为最有可能进行成功交际的形式,听话人同样假设说话人会选择能在最大程度上使交际成功的形式。也就是说指示词语的选择反映出说话人或语篇作者的“认识倾向” (交际主体的信念或知识) (冉 [
(8) A: Look! A cat is stealing your fish in the kitchen.
B: Oh, my! A fish that big will stuff the cat to death.
A: Look! A cat is stealing your fish in the kitchen.
B: Those cats come to steal things all the time.
A: Look! A cat is stealing your fish in the kitchen.
B: Most cats love fish. (丁 [
(9) I just rented a house. The kitchen is really big.
We had Chardonnay with dinner. The wine was the best part.
(Brown [
从例(8)和(9)的表达中可以看出,说话人在选择不同形式指代某一个实体时,会假设或认为听话人已具备相关的背景知识,反映出对交际对象的期待,希望对方能够理解话语中所指代的人或物,并在特定语境中,按自己的意图理解或解释这些词语,达到成功的互动。
指示词语的使用体现出话语交流双方之间进行的协商,通过选择不同的指示词语体现出对自己或他人进行的定位(positioning) (Archer, Aijmer & Wichmann [
(10) P: […] we are a little unclear and this may now have been resolved with the hospital trust as to where the access should be—we we felt it should just com straight through at this point.
D: […] before we submitted the bid and certainly after we’d seen yourselves […] I went to see the uh the agents acting on behalf of the hospital trust with these points of access.
P: yea
D: and they eventually came back and said they were happy with a point there and a point even below this one because there’s a cottage down from there um Rose cottage […]
P: yeah that’s right
(qtd. from Archer, Aijmer & Wichmann [
在例(10)中,P首先引入通道的问题,表明它仍未解决(也就是this point),D使用these points反映了P的意思,接下来D又使用远指词语(there)说明开发者和医院代理事实上已经就P所指的争议之处达成了一致,但P下面这句的评论表明,对他而言,通道问题仍悬而未决,因此,他再次使用了this point:
P: right (1.0) but they didn’t you didn’t discuss any al-alternatives with them they just said they were they were you know satisfied with those—I mean the reason I ask that is that the brief saw access umm I think just coming through at this point. (ibid)
有时,这类指示词语在交流中的使用还传达出话语所隐含的权利意义,在法庭情景中,这种用法尤为明显,如审问中一般都用this来指法庭,其作用在于拉大法官或出席者,甚至整个社会与行为不轨的被告之间的距离。这种突出的态势体现出法官问询中所包含的意识形态,也就是被告要对其不法行为付出代价,同时,这一指示词语的使用也间接传达出拥有法律制度的原因,即要保护公众或整个社会,如下例中,法官修辞性提问中this和that的使用:
(11) Don’t you think that it’s up to you to use some of that fourteen pounds [defendant’s
unemployment benefit as a maintenance payment] rather than everybody else sitting in
this court—and everybody else in the country? (ibid, p. 29)
指示词语的选择和使用,在一定程度上反映出语篇作者或说话人向交际对象表达的态度、想法、感受等,体现出作者与读者的互动。语篇中的指示代词“this”和“that”等的选择并不是随意的,二者有时是不可以互换的,其选择同话语参与者的心理状态或看法有一定关系。
在对汉英童话故事中“this”和“that”的研究基础上,吴一安( [
(12) a. There seems to have been a great deal of sheer carelessness. This is what I can’t understand.
b. A: There seems to have been a great deal of sheer carelessness.
B: Yes, that is what I can’t understand.
(13) a. We went to the opera last night. That was our first outing for months.
b. We’re going to the opera tonight. This’ll be our first outing for months.
(Halliday [
在例(12a)中,由于前后两句出自同一说话者,心理距离要小一些,因此,说话者选择了“this”向听话人表明自己的感受;而同样的意思用(12b)中对话的方式表达出来时,由于说话者是在对他人的话语进行评价,心理距离更大一些。同样,(13a)和(13b)虽然命题内容基本相同,但由于时间上的差异,说话者选择了不同的指示代词,向对方传达自己的感受。一般来说,人们在谈到过去发生的事件时,在时间上心理感觉遥远一些,而在谈到当前或将要发生的事件时,时间上的心理感觉则更近一些。这几个例子进一步证明,指示语具有主观性表达功能,通过这类词语语说话人向交际对象传达对事物的主观看法(王敏、杨坤 [
本文在以往语篇互动及指代词语研究的基础上,对英语指示代词为主的指代形式在语篇中的交际功能进行了尝试性分析。通过对所搜集语言素材的分析,我们发现这类词语的语篇互动性主要体现在五个方面。本文分析说明指代词语不仅具有语篇衔接功能,也能促成语篇交际双方的互动。但是,“互动”在多大程度上适应这一类具体词汇的研究尚待进一步深入。此外,本文的目的只是通过初步的分析,引起人们对不同层次、不同形式语篇互动性的研究兴趣,从而能更好地解释语篇互动的实质和价值,并加以具体的实践应用,尤其是汉语中这类词语的交际功能以及与英语的对比分析。
本文为2017年省社科基金项目“英、汉、西语商务语篇话语策略的跨语言、跨文化研究” (2017K019)研究成果之一。
黑玉琴,黑玉芬. 语篇互动视角下的指代词语分析The Interactive Functions of Referential Expressions in Discourse[J]. 现代语言学, 2019, 07(04): 641-648. https://doi.org/10.12677/ML.2019.74084
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